The idea is simple. Tell some lies to keep from the mother finding out that the Soviet Union and the Berlin Wall have crumbled into dust.
Wolfgang Becker directs this German comedy through the veil of a fairytale gone wrong. Starting off with the authorities cracking everything from ceramics to the head of young and disillusioned Alexander to the spirit of Christiane.
On meeting "the last angelic student nurse of the USSR" the lives of Alex, Lara, Ariane, Rainer and every other soul in the former GDR start to twist and turn with the invisible hand of meeting new people, heightened emotions and the market.
Soon becoming the person he least wants to be, Alex starts to create news and facts with his satellite tv colleague, an aspiring movie director from the west, become just like those that used to control and march past his apartment block. A fine piece of political satire and comedy.
Saturday, 24 October 2009
Wednesday, 16 September 2009
On Advertising
My dad always tries to make a discussion about cigarette advertising. His usual line into this talk is "do the adverts encourage people to start smoking or just to switch brands?".
Well, its an unknown, but generally speaking people tend to ignore adverts on the street. People are generally pretty busy.
So why are adverts put up in locations that people will just walk or drive past. There are several. Firstly, it is to remind people that their product is still available. Secondly, it is to let us know that their product is on the market, demand creation. Thirdly, other companies advertise, so it is the classic follow the leader strategy.
However, there are two forms of advertising that make more of an impact. The first is word of mouth. "OMG, this is a really good product, I genuinely recommend it" and brand loyalty. Brand loyalty works by X is better than Y. Ergo, I am X for this reason and not Y for that reason.
Thursday, 10 September 2009
Glasgow Version
Time in an industrial city,
A strange one....
To yourself, maybe dirty,
Maybe gritty. There are reasons,
The steel, the coal, and alas,
The Ships have gone, as has
The industrial age, an era
Bygone, bitter and twisted?
No, not me. However,
In a city as big as this,
(Glasgow).
There are many; some bitter
Some so bad, like piss and vinegar.
Divisions in the city -
They are green and they are blue.
Ah! But the redness of the left,
Remains pure and true.
The Clyde-the cities main artery
Was red and now blue.
Due to politics then,
In the era of manufacturing.
Now comes the environmental clean-up.
So now the city gets "green".
(this is not written by me, but a response to my poem about Glasgow
A strange one....
To yourself, maybe dirty,
Maybe gritty. There are reasons,
The steel, the coal, and alas,
The Ships have gone, as has
The industrial age, an era
Bygone, bitter and twisted?
No, not me. However,
In a city as big as this,
(Glasgow).
There are many; some bitter
Some so bad, like piss and vinegar.
Divisions in the city -
They are green and they are blue.
Ah! But the redness of the left,
Remains pure and true.
The Clyde-the cities main artery
Was red and now blue.
Due to politics then,
In the era of manufacturing.
Now comes the environmental clean-up.
So now the city gets "green".
(this is not written by me, but a response to my poem about Glasgow
Tuesday, 8 September 2009
Discussing the Novels, I Served the King of England and Like Water for Chocolate
There are many ways in which to interpret a novel in the context of the idea of crossing borders, not just national borders, but borders in terms of age in terms of epoch and age, race and class. The novel Like Water for Chocolate has a strong sense of tradition and this is typified in the epilogue “To the table or to the bed/You must come when you are bid”. This shows that the novel is about tradition and the struggle against the domineering forces of history, for agency both for the protagonists and the nation of Mexico. This sense of struggle for agency is seen too in the novel I Served the King of England as the protagonist Ditie is also, like his native Czechoslovakia, struggling for agency and so this is an appropriate novel to compare. Both novels are set in times of great political upheaval, Like Water for Chocolate being set in the time of the Mexican revolution against the USA and I Served the King of England being set in a time that spans from the early nineteen-twenties to the rule of the Soviet Union. There are many ways in which the idea of individual freedom and national freedom are expressed as the same concept, although there is not enough space in which to adequately discuss them. Therefore, I shall concentrate on the main way in which agency and freedom are expressed in these novels, and this is through the idea of sex being a liberator for the people as a proof of adulthood as well as a spiritual side to life that not everything can be understood in a single, physical moment.
Food in Like Water for Chocolate is arguably the most important of life. Each chapter starts of with a recipe that not only gives the novel a magical element in the sense of transformation from ingredients to meals; it also gives a sense of tradition, binding the characters together when they meet over a meal or even in the making of food because “All the women in the family had to participate: Mama Elena; her daughters…Nacha the cook; Chencha, the maid” (p.13). This is the traditional role for women, something that they fall into happier than others as “They felt that playing in the kitchen was foolish and dangerous” (p11), but “for Tita the joy of living was wrapped up in the delights of food” (p.11). However, there is also a deeper sense of tradition within the food. As “sausage making was a real ritual” (p.13) and the idea of sausages is later mentioned, showing that there is no freedom and the idea of the sausage making being a ritual looking back to the time of the Aztecs. As can be seen food is the idea of tradition, so the idea that sexual congress can be seen as the rebellion in this traditional Mexican situation. Gertrudis and Tita both attempt to subvert the Mexican tradition of subservience as “Mama Elena threw her look that seemed to Tita to contain all the years of repression that flowed over the family” (p.13). This repression comes to a head towards the end of the novel, for example, when Mama Elena and Tita are arguing, Tita claims that, “I know who I am! A person has a perfect right to live her life as she pleases…” (p.180). This is when the two protagonists are debating whether she would be able to marry Pedro or not and is something that is hinted at earlier in the novel as there were several questions asked as “For one thing, she wanted to know who had started this tradition” (p.15). This shows that Tita wants to find her own direction, in the same way that Mexico wants to find its own direction away from being subservient to the United States of America. Gertrudis’ break for freedom, during a meal, comes earlier in Like Water for Chocolate; this is when she runs from the family home to become a prostitute in a “bordertown brothel” (p. 65). Gertrudis, important to the novel as an ostracized child, is “the medium, the conducting body through which the singular sexual message was passed” (p. 49), but this sexuality was to be hidden from Mama Elena.
The novel I Served the King of England is set against the background of a desire for agency, not only for Ditie, but also the Czechoslovakian people “When I started to work at the Golden Prague Hotel, the boss took a hold of my left ear” (p. 1) this shows that Ditie the busboy does not feel that he is not in control, that it is the elites that are in control of society and not the people. This part of the novel takes place in the relatively prosperous epoch after the First World War when Czechoslovakia is not only prosperous for the elites and not for “the gypsies…leaving an unpaid bill and blood all over the tables” (p.6). This novel is less about the preparation of food, but the consumption shown best in the feast served for the Emperor of Ethiopia, in hotel restaurants and various other locations, such as the railway station with Ditie selling frankfurters. It was with the sale of frankfurters that enabled him enough money as “Each week I managed to save up for another girl, a different one each time” (p. 15). However the idea of sex has less to do with rebellion against a traditional society like in Like Water for Chocolate, but more to do with the fact that “money could buy you not just a beautiful girl, money buy you poetry too” (p.16). This shows that there is a perception that both beautiful women and poetry is for the successful and elite in the society of Czechoslovakia, this is something that left him “feeling six feet tall” (p.16), an image of a strong human and not being the “little man” (p.8) that Mrs. Paradise called him when he was listening to the mechanical music box. The idea of sex being a “beautiful and noble aim” (p.9) and although this shows that perhaps sex is the end in itself, it could be argued that it is not the aim as Ditie says “My father used to say that if I had an aim in life I’d be alright because then I’d have a reason for living”. This shows that the protagonist Ditie is like Czechoslovakia as there is a desire to have something from Ditie’s forefathers, he wants to have an aim in life instead of the simple acquisition of money for its own sake. Also there is a sense this idea of sex being an aim in life shows that Ditie wants to be recognized for what he is able to do, the emotions he is able to produce not only in him, but for others too.
However, in I Served the King of England takes a dark turn when the Fascist army invades. Although, Ditie seems to welcome them and marrying Lise, becomes a part of them he is made to feel like an outsider again. This is because the idea of sex is not about personal agency, but more about control of not only the protagonist Ditie, but also of Czechoslovakia. Ditie wants to “father a German child” (p.139) with his German wife Lise. The fact that he has a German wife is not enough as under Nuremburg laws, as Ditie says, “I had to stand naked in front of a doctor who lifted my penis with a cane to look into my anus”. This goes against the idea that sex is something that can be used as a display of choice and his destiny is no longer in his hands; also it shows that sex can no longer be used to show that Ditie is an adult as the inspection infantilizes him when Ditie “couldn’t get an erection and offer the doctor any of my sperm” (p.140). This shows that he no longer wanted the physical feeling of sex and saw it as something deeper inside as he says “I found myself looking at pornographic snapshots of naked people…before I’d turn stiff straight away”. This is because, before, he was having sex for him and not for the duty for the “National Socialist Party and to conceive children in the spirit of that party” (p. 141) showing that the people of Czechoslovakia wanted to raise or be raised in the spirit of themselves. This idea is confounded when he abandons the German child Siegfried and buries Lise in a “common grave with a scarf around the stump of her neck” (p. 173), which can be taken to show that the invading Germans who undercut Ditie’s sense of adulthood and agency as much as they were welcomed by him, were not complete people.
Like in I Served the King of England, there are the negative affects in sexual relationships with those from out with in Like Water for Chocolate. However, in this novel, the negativity does not come from a foreigner, like Lise or John Brown was, but from a Mexican in the form of Pedro. This is shown in the final episode in the love scene between Tita and Pedro. This seems to run against the idea that sex is the great liberator as “Tita would love to show what was growing inside her, to show her fertile body to the world without laying herself open to society’s disapproval” (p. 178). This shows that Tita still wants to be the love of Pedro and not have to hide from people and to be still treated like a child. However, Pedro is conscious about what others might think and so wishes to keep his mistress and his relationship with her under wraps and under his control, something he was not able to do with his wife, Rosuara, whom was married off to him by Mama Elena, thus taking away the agency of all the protagonists involved. Arguably, the most striking realization that sex is not agency as in the final love scene Tita is left by the death of Pedro as “She didn’t want to die. She wanted to explore these emotions many more times” (p. 220). However, it can be said that this was inevitable from the time that “Tita, holding Pedro’s unburnt hand, refused to leave his side” (p.181).
Both novels, I Served the King of England and Like Water for Chocolate show that the struggles of the main protagonists, Ditie and Tita, are too struggles for their countries, Czechoslovakia. As has been discussed there are many themes with both novels, many of which could not be discussed due to the lack of space to explore. When there is a weighing the evidence means shows that despite food being just as important in representing the two cultures, this does not show the problems the two countries face, other than to show that both are seen as servants for others, shown most clearly in the final scene of Like Water for Chocolate between Tita and Pedro. With the deeper exploration of just the idea of sex being a metaphor for agency, it has become clear that both protagonists and the countries in which they are metaphors for, hold the same frailties and problems, Tita in Like Water for Chocolate only is prepared to stand up to Mama Elena when she can no longer cause her harm, in the same way that Mexico could not stand up to the United States of America. As well, like Ditie in I Served the King of England realizes that the solution is to be found within him in the same way that Czechoslovakia should not look outside for help and solutions, but within.
Food in Like Water for Chocolate is arguably the most important of life. Each chapter starts of with a recipe that not only gives the novel a magical element in the sense of transformation from ingredients to meals; it also gives a sense of tradition, binding the characters together when they meet over a meal or even in the making of food because “All the women in the family had to participate: Mama Elena; her daughters…Nacha the cook; Chencha, the maid” (p.13). This is the traditional role for women, something that they fall into happier than others as “They felt that playing in the kitchen was foolish and dangerous” (p11), but “for Tita the joy of living was wrapped up in the delights of food” (p.11). However, there is also a deeper sense of tradition within the food. As “sausage making was a real ritual” (p.13) and the idea of sausages is later mentioned, showing that there is no freedom and the idea of the sausage making being a ritual looking back to the time of the Aztecs. As can be seen food is the idea of tradition, so the idea that sexual congress can be seen as the rebellion in this traditional Mexican situation. Gertrudis and Tita both attempt to subvert the Mexican tradition of subservience as “Mama Elena threw her look that seemed to Tita to contain all the years of repression that flowed over the family” (p.13). This repression comes to a head towards the end of the novel, for example, when Mama Elena and Tita are arguing, Tita claims that, “I know who I am! A person has a perfect right to live her life as she pleases…” (p.180). This is when the two protagonists are debating whether she would be able to marry Pedro or not and is something that is hinted at earlier in the novel as there were several questions asked as “For one thing, she wanted to know who had started this tradition” (p.15). This shows that Tita wants to find her own direction, in the same way that Mexico wants to find its own direction away from being subservient to the United States of America. Gertrudis’ break for freedom, during a meal, comes earlier in Like Water for Chocolate; this is when she runs from the family home to become a prostitute in a “bordertown brothel” (p. 65). Gertrudis, important to the novel as an ostracized child, is “the medium, the conducting body through which the singular sexual message was passed” (p. 49), but this sexuality was to be hidden from Mama Elena.
The novel I Served the King of England is set against the background of a desire for agency, not only for Ditie, but also the Czechoslovakian people “When I started to work at the Golden Prague Hotel, the boss took a hold of my left ear” (p. 1) this shows that Ditie the busboy does not feel that he is not in control, that it is the elites that are in control of society and not the people. This part of the novel takes place in the relatively prosperous epoch after the First World War when Czechoslovakia is not only prosperous for the elites and not for “the gypsies…leaving an unpaid bill and blood all over the tables” (p.6). This novel is less about the preparation of food, but the consumption shown best in the feast served for the Emperor of Ethiopia, in hotel restaurants and various other locations, such as the railway station with Ditie selling frankfurters. It was with the sale of frankfurters that enabled him enough money as “Each week I managed to save up for another girl, a different one each time” (p. 15). However the idea of sex has less to do with rebellion against a traditional society like in Like Water for Chocolate, but more to do with the fact that “money could buy you not just a beautiful girl, money buy you poetry too” (p.16). This shows that there is a perception that both beautiful women and poetry is for the successful and elite in the society of Czechoslovakia, this is something that left him “feeling six feet tall” (p.16), an image of a strong human and not being the “little man” (p.8) that Mrs. Paradise called him when he was listening to the mechanical music box. The idea of sex being a “beautiful and noble aim” (p.9) and although this shows that perhaps sex is the end in itself, it could be argued that it is not the aim as Ditie says “My father used to say that if I had an aim in life I’d be alright because then I’d have a reason for living”. This shows that the protagonist Ditie is like Czechoslovakia as there is a desire to have something from Ditie’s forefathers, he wants to have an aim in life instead of the simple acquisition of money for its own sake. Also there is a sense this idea of sex being an aim in life shows that Ditie wants to be recognized for what he is able to do, the emotions he is able to produce not only in him, but for others too.
However, in I Served the King of England takes a dark turn when the Fascist army invades. Although, Ditie seems to welcome them and marrying Lise, becomes a part of them he is made to feel like an outsider again. This is because the idea of sex is not about personal agency, but more about control of not only the protagonist Ditie, but also of Czechoslovakia. Ditie wants to “father a German child” (p.139) with his German wife Lise. The fact that he has a German wife is not enough as under Nuremburg laws, as Ditie says, “I had to stand naked in front of a doctor who lifted my penis with a cane to look into my anus”. This goes against the idea that sex is something that can be used as a display of choice and his destiny is no longer in his hands; also it shows that sex can no longer be used to show that Ditie is an adult as the inspection infantilizes him when Ditie “couldn’t get an erection and offer the doctor any of my sperm” (p.140). This shows that he no longer wanted the physical feeling of sex and saw it as something deeper inside as he says “I found myself looking at pornographic snapshots of naked people…before I’d turn stiff straight away”. This is because, before, he was having sex for him and not for the duty for the “National Socialist Party and to conceive children in the spirit of that party” (p. 141) showing that the people of Czechoslovakia wanted to raise or be raised in the spirit of themselves. This idea is confounded when he abandons the German child Siegfried and buries Lise in a “common grave with a scarf around the stump of her neck” (p. 173), which can be taken to show that the invading Germans who undercut Ditie’s sense of adulthood and agency as much as they were welcomed by him, were not complete people.
Like in I Served the King of England, there are the negative affects in sexual relationships with those from out with in Like Water for Chocolate. However, in this novel, the negativity does not come from a foreigner, like Lise or John Brown was, but from a Mexican in the form of Pedro. This is shown in the final episode in the love scene between Tita and Pedro. This seems to run against the idea that sex is the great liberator as “Tita would love to show what was growing inside her, to show her fertile body to the world without laying herself open to society’s disapproval” (p. 178). This shows that Tita still wants to be the love of Pedro and not have to hide from people and to be still treated like a child. However, Pedro is conscious about what others might think and so wishes to keep his mistress and his relationship with her under wraps and under his control, something he was not able to do with his wife, Rosuara, whom was married off to him by Mama Elena, thus taking away the agency of all the protagonists involved. Arguably, the most striking realization that sex is not agency as in the final love scene Tita is left by the death of Pedro as “She didn’t want to die. She wanted to explore these emotions many more times” (p. 220). However, it can be said that this was inevitable from the time that “Tita, holding Pedro’s unburnt hand, refused to leave his side” (p.181).
Both novels, I Served the King of England and Like Water for Chocolate show that the struggles of the main protagonists, Ditie and Tita, are too struggles for their countries, Czechoslovakia. As has been discussed there are many themes with both novels, many of which could not be discussed due to the lack of space to explore. When there is a weighing the evidence means shows that despite food being just as important in representing the two cultures, this does not show the problems the two countries face, other than to show that both are seen as servants for others, shown most clearly in the final scene of Like Water for Chocolate between Tita and Pedro. With the deeper exploration of just the idea of sex being a metaphor for agency, it has become clear that both protagonists and the countries in which they are metaphors for, hold the same frailties and problems, Tita in Like Water for Chocolate only is prepared to stand up to Mama Elena when she can no longer cause her harm, in the same way that Mexico could not stand up to the United States of America. As well, like Ditie in I Served the King of England realizes that the solution is to be found within him in the same way that Czechoslovakia should not look outside for help and solutions, but within.
The European Economy in the Early Modern Era
From about 1470 to the mid sixteenth century there was sustained economic growth in all parts of Europe, apart from the north. There was little sign that scarce resources were being stretched, by the powerhouses for this growth which were eastern and southern Europe. However, many economic historians have argued and continue to argue whether there was a pan European outbreak of instability, or whether it was just short bursts in a very few localities. What is quite clear though is that Europe at this point, is an economy that is under going shifts in its structural make up. There is evidence that suggests that the European economy can be shown as an economy of stability because ‘Already by 1500 Europe was living in an economy of regional and international trade rather than mere subsistence’. However, Government policy of states in its many forms and perhaps more importantly the consequences of government policy, shows a Europe that is unstable as ‘the early modern state treated economic prosperity and economic development as subordinate to its other aims and purposes’.
Spain and Venice were the major actors in the trading of commodities in the early modern period, Spain, trading with Latin America for silver and exporting that silver amongst other items to northern Europe, whilst Venice traded with Asia. This trade brought much prosperity and provided much of the growth for both early modern states and southern Europe in general. Also, when the Dutch Republic started to overtake both Spain and Venice, this too provided much of the economic growth that was experienced by northern Europe. However, this shifting of economic emphasis happened for several reasons, one reason was that it was due to a greater adaptability of northern Europeans, and land reclamation schemes of the Dutch in order to produce more grain. There was also geographical fortune as ‘virtually the only sources of grain available in Europe in the 1590s were around the Baltic, in Sweden, Poland and Russia’, as a result of the global cooling experienced in this point in time and so grain prices increased and as a result of inflation, producing more profitable voyages for those involved from northern Europe. This reversal in trade however was sustained for the next 30 years, increasing the stability of the European economy, as Dutch Republic merchants founding the East India Company in 1602, were able to take more Venetian trade away. However, this was not just due to Dutch efficiency and technological improvements; it was also because the Venetian economy was unstable in the 1620s and 1630s as ‘its population and commerce were seriously affected by the plague outbreaks of the 1620s and 1630s’. This would often lead to ships being impounded for as long as the outbreak lasted or a suspension of trade altogether, the result being obvious, this allowed the Dutch ships into ports that would otherwise have been full with Venetian vessels, although it should be noted that by the 1650s Asia became a notoriously hard place for Europeans to trade.
However, it was not all plain sailing as government policy saw to disrupt the prosperity and stability of northern Europe. The English, as a result of the Dutch experience, became increasingly aware of the need to develop its own merchant fleet and to reduce the power of the Dutch. As this happened ‘a gradual erosion of the Dutch trading position was inevitable when England backed up its legislated wishes with military force’. The Anglo-Dutch wars, involving the French on the British side, started as a result of too many foreign ships coming into London harbours, the British government ordered that it should only be English vessels or ships carrying goods destined for England as a result there was a series of naval campaigns from 1652 until 1674. This caused a small amount of destabilisation of the European trade, however, it could be argued that the conflict merely displaced European trade, as some vessels’ cargo was to be handled at ports such as Hamburg and not Amsterdam, further confirmed by the idea that the Atlantic trading system did cause both ports and Liverpool to grow. Although this happened over a period of over 20 years, this never really threatened the destabilisation of the European economy.
There were however, events of enacted government policy that did wreak havoc on the European economy. This mainly took the format of war and happened in the period of about 1570 to 1650. For example, ‘after the Dutch Revolt the reimposition of Catholicism on the southern Low Countries led to many craftsmen to emigrate and plunged the [iron] industry into a terminal decline’. This though, did not really cause instability, other than for a brief period as those refugees took their valuable skills to the emerging economies of the north, in particular to the Dutch Republic and so this particular policy of Spain can be argued to have merely encouraged what was coming to be an inevitable trend in the reordering of European economic life. What government policy did however was to make the crisis of the first half of the seventeenth century, as not only did prices rise, but also there was a financial crisis, due to the huge debts that monarchs had built up. This was down to, amongst other factors, the Thirty Years War. Firstly, in France there were crops and villages destroyed and so price rises of grain would inevitably be raised due to demand, but production would fall as well. Also the Thirty Years War encouraged many European governments to borrow in order to offset the direct and indirect costs of war and diplomacy. As a result of the massive public debt burden, the states that were involved sought to reclaim money by taxation; this taxation was ‘soaring’. This hike in taxation would lead to a massive slump in demand of even basic goods.
However, the European economy even in the parts affected by unhelpful government policy did grow back after a while of stagnation and instability. Venice, after the 1670s did recover, but not back to its original dominant position of the sixteenth century, this too is true for Spain as well. Broadly speaking the European economy did stabilise to a degree not seen in the early modern period. It was this period after the end of the Thirty Years War up until the War of the Spanish Succession that was relatively peaceful in Europe. Also it is at this point that England starts to take the lead in European economic affairs and there is the establishment of stock holding firms as well as the rise of large-scale banks, such as the Bank of England in 1694.
However, as we have seen there has been a discussion about why was the European economy so unstable. It is fair to say that yes, it was unstable at a regional level with the problems of different government policies such as war, subjugation and taxation as well as factors outside the control of government, such as disease and climate change. However, there were some areas of growth that managed to escape this instability, this was mainly in trade and while trade did grow between 1550 and 1715, it tended to move about in terms of who dominated, first it was Spain and Venice, The Dutch Republic from Amsterdam and latterly England towards the end of the period. This happened because of greater flexibility of the northern economies, geographical coincidences and entrepreneurship creating efficiencies. So it is also fair to say that there was instability, but this was more present in some parts of Europe than in others and to some extent it was balanced out by gains in other places or sectors.
Spain and Venice were the major actors in the trading of commodities in the early modern period, Spain, trading with Latin America for silver and exporting that silver amongst other items to northern Europe, whilst Venice traded with Asia. This trade brought much prosperity and provided much of the growth for both early modern states and southern Europe in general. Also, when the Dutch Republic started to overtake both Spain and Venice, this too provided much of the economic growth that was experienced by northern Europe. However, this shifting of economic emphasis happened for several reasons, one reason was that it was due to a greater adaptability of northern Europeans, and land reclamation schemes of the Dutch in order to produce more grain. There was also geographical fortune as ‘virtually the only sources of grain available in Europe in the 1590s were around the Baltic, in Sweden, Poland and Russia’, as a result of the global cooling experienced in this point in time and so grain prices increased and as a result of inflation, producing more profitable voyages for those involved from northern Europe. This reversal in trade however was sustained for the next 30 years, increasing the stability of the European economy, as Dutch Republic merchants founding the East India Company in 1602, were able to take more Venetian trade away. However, this was not just due to Dutch efficiency and technological improvements; it was also because the Venetian economy was unstable in the 1620s and 1630s as ‘its population and commerce were seriously affected by the plague outbreaks of the 1620s and 1630s’. This would often lead to ships being impounded for as long as the outbreak lasted or a suspension of trade altogether, the result being obvious, this allowed the Dutch ships into ports that would otherwise have been full with Venetian vessels, although it should be noted that by the 1650s Asia became a notoriously hard place for Europeans to trade.
However, it was not all plain sailing as government policy saw to disrupt the prosperity and stability of northern Europe. The English, as a result of the Dutch experience, became increasingly aware of the need to develop its own merchant fleet and to reduce the power of the Dutch. As this happened ‘a gradual erosion of the Dutch trading position was inevitable when England backed up its legislated wishes with military force’. The Anglo-Dutch wars, involving the French on the British side, started as a result of too many foreign ships coming into London harbours, the British government ordered that it should only be English vessels or ships carrying goods destined for England as a result there was a series of naval campaigns from 1652 until 1674. This caused a small amount of destabilisation of the European trade, however, it could be argued that the conflict merely displaced European trade, as some vessels’ cargo was to be handled at ports such as Hamburg and not Amsterdam, further confirmed by the idea that the Atlantic trading system did cause both ports and Liverpool to grow. Although this happened over a period of over 20 years, this never really threatened the destabilisation of the European economy.
There were however, events of enacted government policy that did wreak havoc on the European economy. This mainly took the format of war and happened in the period of about 1570 to 1650. For example, ‘after the Dutch Revolt the reimposition of Catholicism on the southern Low Countries led to many craftsmen to emigrate and plunged the [iron] industry into a terminal decline’. This though, did not really cause instability, other than for a brief period as those refugees took their valuable skills to the emerging economies of the north, in particular to the Dutch Republic and so this particular policy of Spain can be argued to have merely encouraged what was coming to be an inevitable trend in the reordering of European economic life. What government policy did however was to make the crisis of the first half of the seventeenth century, as not only did prices rise, but also there was a financial crisis, due to the huge debts that monarchs had built up. This was down to, amongst other factors, the Thirty Years War. Firstly, in France there were crops and villages destroyed and so price rises of grain would inevitably be raised due to demand, but production would fall as well. Also the Thirty Years War encouraged many European governments to borrow in order to offset the direct and indirect costs of war and diplomacy. As a result of the massive public debt burden, the states that were involved sought to reclaim money by taxation; this taxation was ‘soaring’. This hike in taxation would lead to a massive slump in demand of even basic goods.
However, the European economy even in the parts affected by unhelpful government policy did grow back after a while of stagnation and instability. Venice, after the 1670s did recover, but not back to its original dominant position of the sixteenth century, this too is true for Spain as well. Broadly speaking the European economy did stabilise to a degree not seen in the early modern period. It was this period after the end of the Thirty Years War up until the War of the Spanish Succession that was relatively peaceful in Europe. Also it is at this point that England starts to take the lead in European economic affairs and there is the establishment of stock holding firms as well as the rise of large-scale banks, such as the Bank of England in 1694.
However, as we have seen there has been a discussion about why was the European economy so unstable. It is fair to say that yes, it was unstable at a regional level with the problems of different government policies such as war, subjugation and taxation as well as factors outside the control of government, such as disease and climate change. However, there were some areas of growth that managed to escape this instability, this was mainly in trade and while trade did grow between 1550 and 1715, it tended to move about in terms of who dominated, first it was Spain and Venice, The Dutch Republic from Amsterdam and latterly England towards the end of the period. This happened because of greater flexibility of the northern economies, geographical coincidences and entrepreneurship creating efficiencies. So it is also fair to say that there was instability, but this was more present in some parts of Europe than in others and to some extent it was balanced out by gains in other places or sectors.
The Roots of Globalisation
Before this question is answered, there needs to be an adequate definition about the main term, globalisation. Globalisation is best defined as, ‘the process through which an increasingly free flow of ideas, people, goods, services and capital leads to the integration of economies and societies’. International trade and other forms of globalisation can indeed be traced back as far as the sixteenth century. However, it was most notable as a force in economics, politics and society in general from the late nineteenth century to the start of the twentieth century that is between 1870 and 1900. The most notable areas in which this phenomenon was most visible were trade, monetary policy, migration and empire building. Although this is a global effect that most countries took part, there is not the space to give an analysis of all of them, for that reason there will be a concentration on the six leading economies at this time, Britain, France, Germany, Japan, Russia and the United States of America (USA).
Technological innovations were able to reduce costs, by increasing speed or increasing capacity as well as increase connectivity. For example, as the iron hulled steam ships, which started to arrive in the mid 1840s also enabled the expansion of not only European trade, but also transatlantic trade. The electric telegraph also allowed the integration of money markets of the world to become integrated too. Telecommunications were also being used at this time and there was a transatlantic cable laid between the east coast of America and the west coast of Ireland to allow better communication between traders in this time and ‘was another development of immense significance for the growth of world trade’. Also, because markets were able to perform freely without government intervention as it was this that integrated the economies of the North Atlantic. There were two theorists previous to this era of mass global trade who argued that there should be specialisation of production. The theorists were Adam Smith, who advocated absolute advantage and David Ricardo who advocated comparative advantage. These theories denoted that if countries were to specialise in production of one product, then there would be an increase in efficiency due to economies of scale and so produce more, reducing prices and increasing in real incomes. Implicit in all of this was a requirement of trade. This policy was employed in this period leading up to the twentieth century and produced much greater trade with the emerging and industrialising economies of Germany and the USA. Propaganda was also, from the ocean liner ticketing agencies, who published information on the new life that was available in the new world, allowing the dream of a fresh start to be integrated in to the consciousness of those awaiting it. As with trade, this integration was enabled by the growth of the steam ship and trade itself generated an allowance to carry people back to the ship’s port of origin, as merchants did not want to have empty ships. Also, increased competition drove down prices meaning that intercontinental travel was no longer the preserve of the rich. However, the rise in migration was down to a variety of things including many push factors, mainly due to adverse economic conditions as in some parts of Europe, most notably Ireland during the potato famine of 1845-7 as well as the reduction of grain prices in Britain, technological change in southern Europe and low wages in general. They largely, though not exclusively chose America, as ‘The abolition of slavery in the period before 1870 resulted in a serious shortage of labour’. In the new economies there were also opportunities for entrepreneurial zeal, for example, Carnegie who founded US Steel left Scotland for America. Also, there was not a truly globalised labour market, as the Japanese government did not allow this to happen. Emigration was to be punished on pain of death. This meant that the world’s population, rather than being globally connected was merely being distributed amongst the newly industrialising economies of this time. This migratory flow also disproved the Hecksher-Ohlin theory of diminishing trade as a result of the movement of people.
The building of infrastructure, such as railways and canals enabled further connectivity for goods and their intended markets. Firstly in Britain and India, the costs were reduced by the adoption of railways as the main mode of transport for bulk goods, though this was mainly domestic proposes, from port to market, however, it still allowed for greater trade. On the European continent however, the railways proved to be much more beneficial as not only were they able to transport goods domestically, the railways were also able to cross-frontiers and due to reduced costs the trade flourished. There were other notable infrastructure improvements as well that enabled international trade to increase such as the building of such projects such as the Suez Canal. This was a vital shortcut for ships as it meant two things, firstly it meant that ships could refuel here, so less fuel meant more cargo and secondly and more importantly it meant that the journey time between Liverpool and Bombay could be halved.
Gerschenkron argued that there could be substitutes to the factors of production when an economy is industrialising. Also it is true that capital can be used to ‘stimulate or substitute international trade’. This was the case for Germany in the latter half of the nineteenth century. However, there were also international flows of capital for investment into other economies like Canada and the USA as the railways and other key infrastructural developments such as ports and canals were on the rise, mainly from British entrepreneurs, banks and other institutions in the form of purchasing Government bonds or stocks and shares. Also, the Gold Standard was adopted, firstly by Britain and following behind, the USA and Germany, led to globalisation of the monetary system. This was mainly due to the fact that most of Germany’s trade with non-Europeans being done through British institutions and so there was no advantage of the silver standard. As well, during 1867 the monetary conference in Paris argued that there should be a universal gold standard. This would allow trade, along with the reasons already mentioned, to be done much more easily as exchange rates would become fixed allowing not only investors, but also traders to more easily predict what the price might be of returns on investments or commodities as it would increase: This is because on the Gold Standard worked on these principles:
A unit of account needed to be tied to a weight of gold.
There would also need to be a circulation of gold in the form of coins.
Thirdly, subordinate coins would need to be used and these needed to be silver.
As well, there needed to be no restrictions on the smelting of coins into bullion.
Finally, no impediment to the export of gold coins or bullion thus leading to an easier price comparison between the outputs of nations.
However, it should also be noted that this was just as much a domestic policy of some nations, not only leading industrial countries, but also the countries of South and Central America. The gold standard, currency devaluation and other forms of monetary policy were used to offset balance of payments crises, but still meant that monetary policy had to be integrated in order for the standard to work.
The idea of imperialism and empire also contributed to the idea of domestic economies becoming integrated with other economies and so the occurrence of globalisation. This is something that took root during the period of 1870-1900. This was mainly down to government policy, as it was desired by the leading industrial nations of Britain, Germany, France, the USA and Japan to have an empire that it could show off its strength and military prowess. Also, there were economic motivations for empire building. This was firstly due to a desire discover new markets and so give more impetus to the economic growth that was lacking in this time, but also to in the search for raw materials, for example copper from central Africa. However, like monetary policy, the imperialism of the late nineteenth century had a domestic policy element to it. Also colonialism was just as much to do with a response to the threat of attack on merchant vessels and other threats in the stability of trade. The French were not the only state at this time to adopt such policies in order to protect a faltering economy; it was true of the Germans too. Also, there was the idea of keeping nations united domestically after there had been several revolutions leading up to the 1870s, mainly on continental Europe, but as Cecil Rhodes argued ‘if one wanted to avoid civil war, one must become imperialist’. However, this created trading blocks with imperial powers dominating, rather than all nations trading with each other on an equal footing, as there was a rise in the British Empire in this period in order to overcome French trade tariffs.
As can be seen, there were several factors that led to the first era of globalisation between 1870 and 1900. Technology and new inventions of the period proceeding 1870 played a profound part in this process. These telecommunications enabled not only traders but people as well, to communicate across vast distances to integrate trading links and this meant that information was more widely available. Infrastructure was also key in creating a world economy as this enabled transport costs and journey times to be massively reduced. This was also something that benefited the mass migration of people. Also money markets became more integrated into a world system of finance, although pragmatically at first, some countries hailed the rise of the gold standard. Empire as well, meant that more trade was happening as resources and new markets were sought by the colonial power, though this created a more of a top down integration. However, it could be argued that there was no globalisation as from the sources, it is apparent that Russia and Japan are not major players in this process and so this is more of the cementing of a dominant role for the Atlantic economies of Britain, Germany and the USA. Also that, for the most part the globalisation is mainly integration of an empire’s economy and although there was migration from various countries, including India and China, it was mainly the Irish or Italians leaving because of particular problems in their native economy. Although on balance there was globalisation, but it should be tempered, as this was a process that began before 1870 still had a way to go before there was a truer sense of globalisation.
Technological innovations were able to reduce costs, by increasing speed or increasing capacity as well as increase connectivity. For example, as the iron hulled steam ships, which started to arrive in the mid 1840s also enabled the expansion of not only European trade, but also transatlantic trade. The electric telegraph also allowed the integration of money markets of the world to become integrated too. Telecommunications were also being used at this time and there was a transatlantic cable laid between the east coast of America and the west coast of Ireland to allow better communication between traders in this time and ‘was another development of immense significance for the growth of world trade’. Also, because markets were able to perform freely without government intervention as it was this that integrated the economies of the North Atlantic. There were two theorists previous to this era of mass global trade who argued that there should be specialisation of production. The theorists were Adam Smith, who advocated absolute advantage and David Ricardo who advocated comparative advantage. These theories denoted that if countries were to specialise in production of one product, then there would be an increase in efficiency due to economies of scale and so produce more, reducing prices and increasing in real incomes. Implicit in all of this was a requirement of trade. This policy was employed in this period leading up to the twentieth century and produced much greater trade with the emerging and industrialising economies of Germany and the USA. Propaganda was also, from the ocean liner ticketing agencies, who published information on the new life that was available in the new world, allowing the dream of a fresh start to be integrated in to the consciousness of those awaiting it. As with trade, this integration was enabled by the growth of the steam ship and trade itself generated an allowance to carry people back to the ship’s port of origin, as merchants did not want to have empty ships. Also, increased competition drove down prices meaning that intercontinental travel was no longer the preserve of the rich. However, the rise in migration was down to a variety of things including many push factors, mainly due to adverse economic conditions as in some parts of Europe, most notably Ireland during the potato famine of 1845-7 as well as the reduction of grain prices in Britain, technological change in southern Europe and low wages in general. They largely, though not exclusively chose America, as ‘The abolition of slavery in the period before 1870 resulted in a serious shortage of labour’. In the new economies there were also opportunities for entrepreneurial zeal, for example, Carnegie who founded US Steel left Scotland for America. Also, there was not a truly globalised labour market, as the Japanese government did not allow this to happen. Emigration was to be punished on pain of death. This meant that the world’s population, rather than being globally connected was merely being distributed amongst the newly industrialising economies of this time. This migratory flow also disproved the Hecksher-Ohlin theory of diminishing trade as a result of the movement of people.
The building of infrastructure, such as railways and canals enabled further connectivity for goods and their intended markets. Firstly in Britain and India, the costs were reduced by the adoption of railways as the main mode of transport for bulk goods, though this was mainly domestic proposes, from port to market, however, it still allowed for greater trade. On the European continent however, the railways proved to be much more beneficial as not only were they able to transport goods domestically, the railways were also able to cross-frontiers and due to reduced costs the trade flourished. There were other notable infrastructure improvements as well that enabled international trade to increase such as the building of such projects such as the Suez Canal. This was a vital shortcut for ships as it meant two things, firstly it meant that ships could refuel here, so less fuel meant more cargo and secondly and more importantly it meant that the journey time between Liverpool and Bombay could be halved.
Gerschenkron argued that there could be substitutes to the factors of production when an economy is industrialising. Also it is true that capital can be used to ‘stimulate or substitute international trade’. This was the case for Germany in the latter half of the nineteenth century. However, there were also international flows of capital for investment into other economies like Canada and the USA as the railways and other key infrastructural developments such as ports and canals were on the rise, mainly from British entrepreneurs, banks and other institutions in the form of purchasing Government bonds or stocks and shares. Also, the Gold Standard was adopted, firstly by Britain and following behind, the USA and Germany, led to globalisation of the monetary system. This was mainly due to the fact that most of Germany’s trade with non-Europeans being done through British institutions and so there was no advantage of the silver standard. As well, during 1867 the monetary conference in Paris argued that there should be a universal gold standard. This would allow trade, along with the reasons already mentioned, to be done much more easily as exchange rates would become fixed allowing not only investors, but also traders to more easily predict what the price might be of returns on investments or commodities as it would increase: This is because on the Gold Standard worked on these principles:
A unit of account needed to be tied to a weight of gold.
There would also need to be a circulation of gold in the form of coins.
Thirdly, subordinate coins would need to be used and these needed to be silver.
As well, there needed to be no restrictions on the smelting of coins into bullion.
Finally, no impediment to the export of gold coins or bullion thus leading to an easier price comparison between the outputs of nations.
However, it should also be noted that this was just as much a domestic policy of some nations, not only leading industrial countries, but also the countries of South and Central America. The gold standard, currency devaluation and other forms of monetary policy were used to offset balance of payments crises, but still meant that monetary policy had to be integrated in order for the standard to work.
The idea of imperialism and empire also contributed to the idea of domestic economies becoming integrated with other economies and so the occurrence of globalisation. This is something that took root during the period of 1870-1900. This was mainly down to government policy, as it was desired by the leading industrial nations of Britain, Germany, France, the USA and Japan to have an empire that it could show off its strength and military prowess. Also, there were economic motivations for empire building. This was firstly due to a desire discover new markets and so give more impetus to the economic growth that was lacking in this time, but also to in the search for raw materials, for example copper from central Africa. However, like monetary policy, the imperialism of the late nineteenth century had a domestic policy element to it. Also colonialism was just as much to do with a response to the threat of attack on merchant vessels and other threats in the stability of trade. The French were not the only state at this time to adopt such policies in order to protect a faltering economy; it was true of the Germans too. Also, there was the idea of keeping nations united domestically after there had been several revolutions leading up to the 1870s, mainly on continental Europe, but as Cecil Rhodes argued ‘if one wanted to avoid civil war, one must become imperialist’. However, this created trading blocks with imperial powers dominating, rather than all nations trading with each other on an equal footing, as there was a rise in the British Empire in this period in order to overcome French trade tariffs.
As can be seen, there were several factors that led to the first era of globalisation between 1870 and 1900. Technology and new inventions of the period proceeding 1870 played a profound part in this process. These telecommunications enabled not only traders but people as well, to communicate across vast distances to integrate trading links and this meant that information was more widely available. Infrastructure was also key in creating a world economy as this enabled transport costs and journey times to be massively reduced. This was also something that benefited the mass migration of people. Also money markets became more integrated into a world system of finance, although pragmatically at first, some countries hailed the rise of the gold standard. Empire as well, meant that more trade was happening as resources and new markets were sought by the colonial power, though this created a more of a top down integration. However, it could be argued that there was no globalisation as from the sources, it is apparent that Russia and Japan are not major players in this process and so this is more of the cementing of a dominant role for the Atlantic economies of Britain, Germany and the USA. Also that, for the most part the globalisation is mainly integration of an empire’s economy and although there was migration from various countries, including India and China, it was mainly the Irish or Italians leaving because of particular problems in their native economy. Although on balance there was globalisation, but it should be tempered, as this was a process that began before 1870 still had a way to go before there was a truer sense of globalisation.
A Discussion on The Nose and The Metamorphosis
The view about the ghost in the machine comes from the Cartesian view that mind and body are both separate and unique, this is called dualist theory. However, there are arguments forwarded by philosophers such as Thomas Hobbes that the mind and body are not separate, normally accepted as the materialist view. The mind can be defined as personality, which would encompass tastes, hobbies and occupation amongst other ideas. The view that the mind is the ‘real’ self relies on the idea of there being a spiritual being. The two texts that can be used to discuss whether the mind is the real self or that the mind and body are in fact the same will be, Gogol’s The Nose and Franz Kafka’s The Metamorphosis highlights the debate as to weather the mind and body are different. Both chosen as the texts show that there is change in appearance of the body, but it is debatable weather there is a change in the mind of the individual characters of the novels. Descartes also suggests that there is “black bile”, produced in melancholic states. The Nose and The Metamorphosis would be appropriate as noses discharges phlegm and Gregor leaves trails of slime. These two texts will be used to show that the mind is the real self and that the body is merely a casing for the mind.
The real self can be argued to exist in the mind and not the body as in The Metamorphosis Gregor is described as being “a monstrous insect” and that “It was not dream” (p.76). Even the idea of Gregor having been turned into a monstrous insect would indicate that the body is just a shell for the as he is still quite weak and young, for example, “. There is continuity of mind as Gregor is the same in terms of as is shown in the episode of the milk. For example, “there stood a bowl full with creamy milk…He could of almost laughed for joy…milk had always been his favourite drink” (p.92). If one was to take the materialist view that the real self was the body then Gregor’s fondness for milk would have gone along with his human body and so one can argue that the real self is in the mind and not the body. Although the quote is written in the past tense and this might demonstrate that even though the taste for milk has stayed, it is no longer his favourite indicating a change in mind as well as body. However, The Metamorphosis is not the only text that can be used to show that the mind is encased by the body.
However, Gregor does eventually go off his milk as when his sister arrives in “Would she notice that he had left his milk” (p.94), showing that perhaps there is no overnight change for Gregor, but there is a gradual shift towards him being a monstrous insect. Clearly there has been a change in terms of body, from human to insect, but also a personality change from “boy” to monster. The change in taste for his milk is a symptom of that physical change. The idea of food and drink remains a strong theme with The Metamorphosis as Gregor even goes off eating all together, despite a previous lust for food and nourishment as “Only when he happened to go past the food set out for him would he take a bite” (p.114). This would support the materialist view that mind and body are the same as even with the gradual change, the mind and body are changing to be the same, real self.
Drink too is a feature of Gogol’s The Nose as the barber Ivan Yakovlevich appears to be a “terrible drunkard” (p.60). However, there is a difference between the barber and Gregor, as the barber does not go off his drink, but changes what he drinks. For example, as he says “I won’t have coffee to-day” (p.58). This shows that the barber Ivan has kept the same mind whilst having the same body, but realises that there is agency and this would support the idea of the mind and body being the same entity. However, there is with agency a realisation that one can change the mind and this would go in to support for the idea that the mind and body are separate.
Although it is true to say that in The Metamorphosis Gregor still has the same mind and shows that his real self is in the mind. As “That boy thinks of nothing but his work. It makes me almost cross the way he never goes out in the evenings” (p.82). This too becomes concurrent as Gregor becomes more and more isolated by the fact that he no longer interacts with his family as “he intended to announce his plan with due solemnity on Christmas Eve” (p.98). This shows that it is Gregor’s real self to be isolated even within the household. Again, this would support the idea that the mind is simply encased by the body. There has been a transformation of the body, but there has been no transformation of the mind, there has merely been an entrenchment of his thoughts and feelings towards life.
However, Gregor is not the only one to change in terms of mind and body as his sister, Grete also begins to change in her interactions with Gregor. At first Grete is helpful as “she took it into head to provide Gregor with the maximum crawling space” (p.102) showing that there does not even need to be a change in bodily appearance to change the mind or the real self. Helpfulness despite “resolve from her mother” (p.104) can be said to be one trait of Grete’s personality, as she is too helpful to her father in offering to him to fetch beers from the fridge. However, this helpfulness is reduced when “the sight of him was still repugnant to her and was bound to go on being repugnant” (p.100). This shows that Grete’s mind has changed in her reaction towards Gregor without a body change. However, there is the counter argument that Gregor is not Grete’s so cause for concern as she has other aspects to her life that have not changed. For example, she works and plays the violin, so one could argue that whilst her mind has changed, it is not a complete change. Again Grete can be seen to support the Cartesian view as when her father “puts the worst interpretation on Grete’s all too brief account and assumed that Gregor was guilty of some act of violence” (p.106). This shows that the body cannot be used to see what the mind is saying, that there is something deeper and required that just the purely physical nature of the body, which the mind gives.
The idea that the real self is in the body and is not merely a casement for the mind can be shown in The Nose. In The Nose Gogol tends to use the idea of clothing as a representation of the body. This is shown in the idea that “Judging by the buttons on your uniform, you must be employed in the senate” (p.63) and is just after the Major “went out of his mind” (p.62), playing into the idea of the Russian class system that people dressed according to status. This is in the episode where the Major and Nose meet each other. However, the Major by this point has lost his nose and there has been a slight change in personality as “For me to go without my nose, you’ll admit, is unbecoming of me” (p.63). This shows that there has been a loss of confidence as not only the phrase suggests a stutter and there is a need for other people’s opinions in order to increase his self assurance as “He knew not what to do or what to think” (p.64). The bodily change in the losing of the nose has meant that he has lost something in his mind and so it can be argued in this case that the mind and body are both the same. This is something that would go towards supporting the materialist view. Also when the nose rejoins the Major, there is a sudden increase in confidence as “in his joy he very nearly broke into a barefooted dance round the room” (p.76) showing that again, the physical change in the Major has caused a mental change. Also, one might even argue that the behaviour of the Major is not appropriate as an army rank would imply some kind of order or regimented style of living.
However, Kovalyov does “almost go out of his mind” (p.62) which implies that the mind and body are separate in this circumstance as it is at this point that the Major realises that he is missing his nose. This fits in to the idea that the mind is encased by the body as without the nose, there is nothing to stop the phlegm coming out. Also, “the ranks of beggarwomen with bandaged faces” (p.63) confirm this idea of the nose being a representation of masculinity along with the idea of facial hair. This can be used to argue for to be a man and a complete person there should be a nose, in terms of physicality, but a mind in terms of mental aptitude. Also, the lack of the nose, this would affect his ranking in society as “What if they were to find out…You can simply write down: a collegiate assessor or, still better, a person holding the rank of major” (p.66). It is at this point that he loses who he is. This is shown in the last part of the phrase indicates that the title is no longer his as major is now no longer capitalised. Although it is more true to say that this would support the materialist view as part of Kovalyov’s identity is being a major and with the loss of the nose and rank this would mean that his body and mind would become reduced.
In this essay there has been a discussion on whether the real self is in the body or the mind. It was set out that the aim of the essay was to show that the mind is separate from the body and that the latter is merely its casing. There was a following of themes in relation to the texts of both food and clothes being representative of how the characters have changed or stayed true to themselves. It can be said that in The Metamorphosis Gregor had changed in terms of physicality, but not in terms of the mental and so in this case, it would be accurate to say that this means that the mind is the real self and the body is mere casing. However, this is not something that can be said for Gogol’s The Nose as the mental changes happen in conjunction with the physical changes. This all goes to show that the idea of the body being a simple casing for the mind as the real self cannot be said to be any stronger than the body being the real self of which the mind is part.
The real self can be argued to exist in the mind and not the body as in The Metamorphosis Gregor is described as being “a monstrous insect” and that “It was not dream” (p.76). Even the idea of Gregor having been turned into a monstrous insect would indicate that the body is just a shell for the as he is still quite weak and young, for example, “. There is continuity of mind as Gregor is the same in terms of as is shown in the episode of the milk. For example, “there stood a bowl full with creamy milk…He could of almost laughed for joy…milk had always been his favourite drink” (p.92). If one was to take the materialist view that the real self was the body then Gregor’s fondness for milk would have gone along with his human body and so one can argue that the real self is in the mind and not the body. Although the quote is written in the past tense and this might demonstrate that even though the taste for milk has stayed, it is no longer his favourite indicating a change in mind as well as body. However, The Metamorphosis is not the only text that can be used to show that the mind is encased by the body.
However, Gregor does eventually go off his milk as when his sister arrives in “Would she notice that he had left his milk” (p.94), showing that perhaps there is no overnight change for Gregor, but there is a gradual shift towards him being a monstrous insect. Clearly there has been a change in terms of body, from human to insect, but also a personality change from “boy” to monster. The change in taste for his milk is a symptom of that physical change. The idea of food and drink remains a strong theme with The Metamorphosis as Gregor even goes off eating all together, despite a previous lust for food and nourishment as “Only when he happened to go past the food set out for him would he take a bite” (p.114). This would support the materialist view that mind and body are the same as even with the gradual change, the mind and body are changing to be the same, real self.
Drink too is a feature of Gogol’s The Nose as the barber Ivan Yakovlevich appears to be a “terrible drunkard” (p.60). However, there is a difference between the barber and Gregor, as the barber does not go off his drink, but changes what he drinks. For example, as he says “I won’t have coffee to-day” (p.58). This shows that the barber Ivan has kept the same mind whilst having the same body, but realises that there is agency and this would support the idea of the mind and body being the same entity. However, there is with agency a realisation that one can change the mind and this would go in to support for the idea that the mind and body are separate.
Although it is true to say that in The Metamorphosis Gregor still has the same mind and shows that his real self is in the mind. As “That boy thinks of nothing but his work. It makes me almost cross the way he never goes out in the evenings” (p.82). This too becomes concurrent as Gregor becomes more and more isolated by the fact that he no longer interacts with his family as “he intended to announce his plan with due solemnity on Christmas Eve” (p.98). This shows that it is Gregor’s real self to be isolated even within the household. Again, this would support the idea that the mind is simply encased by the body. There has been a transformation of the body, but there has been no transformation of the mind, there has merely been an entrenchment of his thoughts and feelings towards life.
However, Gregor is not the only one to change in terms of mind and body as his sister, Grete also begins to change in her interactions with Gregor. At first Grete is helpful as “she took it into head to provide Gregor with the maximum crawling space” (p.102) showing that there does not even need to be a change in bodily appearance to change the mind or the real self. Helpfulness despite “resolve from her mother” (p.104) can be said to be one trait of Grete’s personality, as she is too helpful to her father in offering to him to fetch beers from the fridge. However, this helpfulness is reduced when “the sight of him was still repugnant to her and was bound to go on being repugnant” (p.100). This shows that Grete’s mind has changed in her reaction towards Gregor without a body change. However, there is the counter argument that Gregor is not Grete’s so cause for concern as she has other aspects to her life that have not changed. For example, she works and plays the violin, so one could argue that whilst her mind has changed, it is not a complete change. Again Grete can be seen to support the Cartesian view as when her father “puts the worst interpretation on Grete’s all too brief account and assumed that Gregor was guilty of some act of violence” (p.106). This shows that the body cannot be used to see what the mind is saying, that there is something deeper and required that just the purely physical nature of the body, which the mind gives.
The idea that the real self is in the body and is not merely a casement for the mind can be shown in The Nose. In The Nose Gogol tends to use the idea of clothing as a representation of the body. This is shown in the idea that “Judging by the buttons on your uniform, you must be employed in the senate” (p.63) and is just after the Major “went out of his mind” (p.62), playing into the idea of the Russian class system that people dressed according to status. This is in the episode where the Major and Nose meet each other. However, the Major by this point has lost his nose and there has been a slight change in personality as “For me to go without my nose, you’ll admit, is unbecoming of me” (p.63). This shows that there has been a loss of confidence as not only the phrase suggests a stutter and there is a need for other people’s opinions in order to increase his self assurance as “He knew not what to do or what to think” (p.64). The bodily change in the losing of the nose has meant that he has lost something in his mind and so it can be argued in this case that the mind and body are both the same. This is something that would go towards supporting the materialist view. Also when the nose rejoins the Major, there is a sudden increase in confidence as “in his joy he very nearly broke into a barefooted dance round the room” (p.76) showing that again, the physical change in the Major has caused a mental change. Also, one might even argue that the behaviour of the Major is not appropriate as an army rank would imply some kind of order or regimented style of living.
However, Kovalyov does “almost go out of his mind” (p.62) which implies that the mind and body are separate in this circumstance as it is at this point that the Major realises that he is missing his nose. This fits in to the idea that the mind is encased by the body as without the nose, there is nothing to stop the phlegm coming out. Also, “the ranks of beggarwomen with bandaged faces” (p.63) confirm this idea of the nose being a representation of masculinity along with the idea of facial hair. This can be used to argue for to be a man and a complete person there should be a nose, in terms of physicality, but a mind in terms of mental aptitude. Also, the lack of the nose, this would affect his ranking in society as “What if they were to find out…You can simply write down: a collegiate assessor or, still better, a person holding the rank of major” (p.66). It is at this point that he loses who he is. This is shown in the last part of the phrase indicates that the title is no longer his as major is now no longer capitalised. Although it is more true to say that this would support the materialist view as part of Kovalyov’s identity is being a major and with the loss of the nose and rank this would mean that his body and mind would become reduced.
In this essay there has been a discussion on whether the real self is in the body or the mind. It was set out that the aim of the essay was to show that the mind is separate from the body and that the latter is merely its casing. There was a following of themes in relation to the texts of both food and clothes being representative of how the characters have changed or stayed true to themselves. It can be said that in The Metamorphosis Gregor had changed in terms of physicality, but not in terms of the mental and so in this case, it would be accurate to say that this means that the mind is the real self and the body is mere casing. However, this is not something that can be said for Gogol’s The Nose as the mental changes happen in conjunction with the physical changes. This all goes to show that the idea of the body being a simple casing for the mind as the real self cannot be said to be any stronger than the body being the real self of which the mind is part.
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